Articles | Volume 1, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-381-2015
© Author(s) 2015. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Special issue:
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-381-2015
© Author(s) 2015. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
A new synthesis for terrestrial nitrogen inputs
B. Z. Houlton
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, California, 95616, USA
S. L. Morford
Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis, California, 95616, USA
Cited articles
Aandahl, A. R.: The characterization of slope positions and their influence on the total nitrogen content of a few virgin soils of western Iowa, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 13, 449–454, 1948.
Aber, J. D., Nadelhoffer, K. D., Steudler, P., and Melillo, J. M.: Nitrogen saturation in northern forest ecosystems, BioScience, 39, 378–386, 1989.
Amundson, R. and Jenny, H.: The place of humans in the state factor theory of ecosystems and their soils, Soil Sci., 151, 99–109, 1991.
Amundson, R., Austin, A. T., Schuur, E. A. G., Yoo, K., Matzek, V., Kendall, C., Uebersax, A., Brenner, D., and Baisden, W. T.: Global patterns of the isotopic composition of soil and plant nitrogen, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 17, 1031, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GB001903, 2003.
Amundson, R., Richter, D. D., Humphreys, G. S., Jobbagy, E. G., and Gaillardet, J.: Coupling between biota and earth materials in the Critical Zone, Elements, 3, 327–332, https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.3.5.327, 2007.
Andrews, J. A. and Schlesinger, W. H.: Soil CO2 dynamics, acidification, and chemical weathering in a temperate forest with experimental CO2 enrichment, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 15, 149–162, 2001.
Barron, A. R., Wurzburger, N., Bellenger, J. P., Wright, S. J., Kraepiel, A. M. L., and Hedin, L. O.: Molybdenum limitation of asymbiotic nitrogen fixation in tropical forest soils, Nat. Geosci., 2, 42–45, 2009.
Barron, A. R., Purves, D. W., and Hedin, L. O.: Facultative nitrogen fixation by canopy legumes in a lowland tropical forest, Oecologia, 165, 511–520, 2011.
Batterman, S. A., Hedin, L. O., van Breugel, M., Ransijn, J., Craven, D. J., and Hall, J. S.: Key role of symbiotic dinitrogen fixation in tropical forest secondary succession, Nature, 502, 224–227, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12525, 2013.
Bebout, G. E. and Fogel, M. L.: Nitrogen-isotope compositions of metasedimentary rocks in the Catalina Schist, California – implications for metamorphic devolatilization history, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56, 2839–2849, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(92)90363-n, 1992.
Bebout, G. E., Fogel, M. L., and Cartigny, P.: Nitrogen: Highly volatile yet surprisingly compatible, Elements, 9, 333–338, https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.9.5.333, 2013.
Belnap, J.: Nitrogen fixation in biological soil crusts from southeast Utah, USA, Biol. Fertil. Soils, 35, 128–135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-002-0452-x, 2002.
Benner, J. W., Conroy, S., Lunch, C. K., Toyoda, N., and Vitousek, P. M.: Phosphorus fertilization increases the abundance and nitrogenase activity of the cyanolichen Pseudocyphellaria crocata in hawaiian montane forests, Biotropica, 39, 400–405, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00267.x, 2007.
Berner, R. A.: Geological nitrogen cycle and atmospheric N-2 over Phanerozoic time, Geology, 34, 413–415, https://doi.org/10.1130/g22470.1, 2006.
Binkley, D., Cromack Jr., K., and Baker, D.: Nitrogen fixation by red alder: biology, rates, and controls, The biology and management of red alder, Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, 57–72, 1994.
Binkley, D., Son, Y., and Valentine, D. W.: Do forests receive occult inputs of nitrogen?, Ecosystems, 3, 321–331, https://doi.org/10.1007/s100210000029, 2000.
Birkeland, P. W., Burke, R. M., and Benedict, J. B.: Pedogenic gradients for iron and aluminum accumulation and phosphorus depletion in arctic and alpine soils as a function of time and climate, Quaternary Res., 32, 193–204, https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(89)90075-6, 1989.
Bormann, F. H. and Likens, G. E.: Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 253 pp., 1979.
Boudou, J. P., Schimmelmann, A., Ader, M., Mastalerz, M., Sebilo, M., and Gengembre, L.: Organic nitrogen chemistry during low-grade metamorphism, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 72, 1199–1221, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2007.12.004, 2008.
Busigny, V., Cartigny, P., and Philippot, P.: Nitrogen isotopes in ophiolitic metagabbros: A re-evaluation of modern nitrogen fluxes in subduction zones and implication for the early Earth atmosphere, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 75, 7502–7521, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2011.09.049, 2011.
Ceuterick, F., Peeters, J., Heremans, K., De Smedt, H., and Olbrechts, H.: Effect of High Pressure, Detergents and Phaospholipase on the Break in the Arrhenius Plot of Azotobacter Nitrogenase, Eur. J. Biochem/, 87, 401–407, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1978.tb12389.x, 1978.
Chadwick, O. A., Derry, L. A., Vitousek, P. M., Huebert, B. J., and Hedin, L. O.: Changing sources of nutrients during four million years of ecosystem development, Nature (London), 397, 491–497, 1999.
Chadwick, O. A., Gavenda, R. T., Kelly, E. F., Ziegler, K., Olson, C. G., Elliott, W. C., and Hendricks, D. M.: The impact of climate on the biogeochemical functioning of volcanic soils, Chemical Geol., 202, 195–223, 2003.
Chapin III, F. S., Walker, L. R., Fastie, C. L., and Sharman, L. C.: Mechanisms of primary succession following deglaciation at Glacier Bay, Alaska, Ecol. Monogr., 64, 149–175, 1994.
Chapin III, F. S., Matson, P. A., and Mooney, H. A.: Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology, Springer, New York, 436 pp., 2002.
Ciais, P., Sabine, C., Bala, G., Bopp, L., Brovkin, V., Canadell, J., Chhabra, A., DeFries, R., Galloway, J., Heimann, M., Jones, C., Le Quéré, C., Myneni, R. B., Piao, S., and Thornton, P.: Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles, in: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2013.
Cleveland, C. C., Townsend, A. R., Schimel, D. S., Fisher, H., Howarth, R. W., Hedin, L. O., Perakis, S. S., Latty, E. F., von Fischer, J. C., Elseroad, A., and Wasson, M. F.: Global patterns of terrestrial nitrogen (N2) fixation in natural ecosystems, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 13, 623–645, 1999.
Cleveland, C. C., Houlton, B. Z., Smith, W. K., Marklein, A. R., Reed, S. C., Parton, W., Del Grosso, S. J., and Running, S. W.: Patterns of new versus recycled primary production in the terrestrial biosphere, Proc. Natl. Aca. Sci., 110, 12733–12737, 2013.
Crews, T. E.: The presence of nitrogen fixing legumes in terrestrial communities: Evolutionary vs ecological considerations, Biogeochemistry, 46, 233–246, 1999.
Crews, T. E., Kitayama, K., Fownes, J. H., Riley, R. H., Herbert, D. A., Mueller-Dombois, D., and Vitousek, P. M.: Changes in soil phosphorus fractions and ecosystem dynamics across a long chronosequence in Hawaii, Ecology, 76, 1407–1424, 1995.
Crews, T. E., Kurina, L. M., and Vitousek, P. M.: Organic matter and nitrogen accumulation and nitrogen fixation during early ecosystem development in Hawaii, Biogeochemistry, 52, 259–279, 2001.
Dahlgren, R. A.: Soil acidification and nitrogen saturation from weathering of ammonium-bearing rock, Nature, 368, 838–841, https://doi.org/10.1038/368838a0, 1994.
Dahlgren, R. A., Boettinger, J. L., Huntington, G. L., and Amundson, R. G.: Soil development along an elevational transect in the western Sierra Nevada, California, Geoderma, 78, 207–236, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7061(97)00034-7, 1997.
Davidson, E. A.: Biogeochemistry: Fixing forests, Nat. Geosci., 1, 421–422, https://doi.org/10.1038/Ngeo244, 2008.
Davidson, E. A., de Carvalho, C. J. R., Figueira, A. M., Ishida, F. Y., Ometto, J. P. H., Nardoto, G. B., Sabá, R. T., Hayashi, S. N., Leal, E. C., and Vieira, I. C. G.: Recuperation of nitrogen cycling in Amazonian forests following agricultural abandonment, Nature, 447, 995–998, 2007.
Delwiche, C. C.: Nitrogen Cycle, Sci. Am., 223, 137–146, 1970.
Dixon, J. C., Campbell, S. W., and Durham, B.: Geologic nitrogen and climate change in the geochemical budget of Kärkevagge, Swedish Lapland, Geomorphology, 167, 70–76, 2012.
Drever, J. I.: The effect of land plants on weathering rates of silicate minerals, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58, 2325–2332, 1994.
Durr, H. H., Meybeck, M., and Durr, S. H.: Lithologic composition of the Earth's continental surfaces derived from a new digital map emphasizing riverine material transfer, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 19, GB4S10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005gb002515, 2005.
Egli, M., Mirabella, A., Sartori, G., and Fitze, P.: Weathering rates as a function of climate: results from a climosequence of the Val Genova (Trentino, Italian Alps), Geoderma, 111, 99–121, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7061(02)00256-2, 2003.
Elbert, W., Weber, B., Burrows, S., Steinkamp, J., Budel, B., Andreae, M. O., and Poschl, U.: Contribution of cryptogamic covers to the global cycles of carbon and nitrogen, Nat. Geosci., 5, 459–462, http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v5/n7/abs/ngeo1486.html#supplementary-information, 2012.
Elser, J. J., Bracken, M. E. S., Cleland, E. E., Gruner, D. S., Harpole, W. S., Hillebrand, H., Ngai, J. T., Seabloom, E. W., Shurin, J. B., and Smith, J. E.: Global analysis of nitrogen and phosphorus limitation of primary producers in freshwater, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, Ecol. Lett., 10, 1135–1142, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01113.x, 2007.
Fernández-Martínez, M., Vicca, S., Janssens, I. A., Sardans, J., Luyssaert, S., Campioli, M., Chapin III, F. S., Ciais, P., Malhi, Y., Obersteiner, M., Papale, D., Piao, S. L., Reichstein, M., Roda, F., and Penuelas, J.: Nutrient availability as the key regulator of global forest carbon balance, Nature Clim. Change, 4, 471–476, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2177, 2014.
Fowler, D., Coyle, M., Skiba, U., Sutton, M. A., Cape, J. N., Reis, S., Sheppard, L. J., Jenkins, A., Grizzetti, B., and Galloway, J. N.: The global nitrogen cycle in the twenty-first century, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. B, 368, 20130165, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0165, 2013.
Gabet, E. J. and Mudd, S. M.: A theoretical model coupling chemical weathering rates with denudation rates, Geology, 37, 151–154, https://doi.org/10.1130/g25270a.1, 2009.
Galloway, J. N. and Cowling, E. B.: Reactive nitrogen and the world: 200 Years of change, Ambio, 31, 64–71, 2002.
Galloway, J. N., Dentener, F. J., Capone, D. G., Boyer, E. W., Howarth, R. W., Seitzinger, S. P., Asner, G. P., Cleveland, C. C., Green, P. A., Holland, E. A., Karl, D. M., Michaels, A. F., Porter, J. H., Townsend, A. R., and Vorosmarty, C. J.: Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future, Biogeochemistry, 70, 153–226, 2004.
Garten, C. T. and Vanmiegroet, H.: Relationships between soil-nitrogen dynamics and natural N-15 abundance in plant foliage from Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Can. J. For. Res.-Rev. Can. Rech. For., 24, 1636–1645, https://doi.org/10.1139/x94-212, 1994.
Geesing, D., Felker, P., and Bingham, R. L.: Influence of mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) on soil nitrogen and carbon development: Implications for global carbon sequestration, J. Arid Environ., 46, 157–180, https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.2000.0661, 2000.
Gessler, P. E., Chadwick, O. A., Chamran, F., Althouse, L., and Holmes, K.: Modeling soil-landscape and ecosystem properties using terrain attributes, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 64, 2046–2056, 2000.
Goldblatt, C., Claire, M. W., Lenton, T. M., Matthews, A. J., Watson, A. J., and Zahnle, K. J.: Nitrogen-enhanced greenhouse warming on early Earth, Nat. Geosci., 2, 891–896, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo692, 2009.
Hartmann, J., Moosdorf, N., Lauerwald, R., Hinderer, M., and West, A. J.: Global chemical weathering and associated P-release – The role of lithology, temperature and soil properties, Chemical Geol., 363, 145–163, 2014.
Hedges, J. I. and Keil, R. G.: SSedimentary organic-matter preservation – an assessment and speculative synthesis, Mar. Chem., 49, 81–115, https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4203(95)00008-f, 1995.
Hedges, J. I., Hu, F. S., Devol, A. H., Hartnett, H. E., Tsamakis, E., and Keil, R. G.: Sedimentary organic matter preservation: A test for selective degradation under oxic conditions, Am. J. Sci., 299, 529–555, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.299.7-9.529, 1999.
Hedin, L. O., Armesto, J. J., and Johnson, A. H.: Patterns of nutrient loss from unpolluted, old-growth temperate forests: evaluation of biogeochemical theory, Ecology, 76, 493–509, 1995.
Hedin, L. O., Brookshire, E. J., Menge, D. N., and Barron, A. R.: The nitrogen paradox in tropical forest ecosystems, Ann. Rev. Ecol., Evol. System., 40, 613–635, 2009.
Heimsath, A. M., Dietrich, W. E., Nishiizumi, K., and Finkel, R. C.: The soil production function and landscape equilibrium, Nature, 388, 358–361, https://doi.org/10.1038/41056, 1997.
Hilley, G. E. and Porder, S.: A framework for predicting global silicate weathering and CO2 drawdown rates over geologic time-scales, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 16855–16859, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801462105, 2008.
Hirobe, M., Tokuchi, N., and Iwatsubo, G.: Spatial variability of soil nitrogen transformation patterns along a forest slope in a Cryptomeria japonica D. Don plantation, Eur. J. Soil Biol., 34, 123–131, 1998.
Hoffland, E., Kuyper, T. W., Wallander, H., Plassard, C., Gorbushina, A. A., Haselwandter, K., Holmstrom, S., Landeweert, R., Lundstrom, U. S., Rosling, A., Sen, R., Smits, M. M., van Hees, P. A., and van Breemen, N.: The role of fungi in weathering, Front. Ecol. Environ., 2, 258–264, 2004.
Holland, E. A., Braswell, B. H., Lamarque, J.-F., Townsend, A., Sulzman, J., Müller, J.-F., Dentener, F., Brasseur II, G., H. L., Penner, J. E., and Roelofs., G.-J.: Examination of spatial variation in atmospheric nitrogen deposition and its impact on the terrestrial ecosystems, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 15849–15866, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD03164, 1997.
Holloway, J. M. and Dahlgren, R. A.: Nitrogen in rock: Occurrences and biogeochemical implications, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 16, 1118, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002gb001862, 2002.
Holloway, J. M., Dahlgren, R. A., Hansen, B., and Casey, W. H.: Contribution of bedrock nitrogen to high nitrate concentrations in stream water, Nature, 395, 785–788, 1998.
Houlton, B. Z. and Bai, E.: Imprint of denitrifying bacteria on the global terrestrial biosphere, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 106, 21713–21716, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912111106, 2009.
Houlton, B. Z., Driscoll, C. T., Fahey, T. J., Likens, G. E., Groffman, P. M., Bernhardt, E. S., and Buso, D. C.: Nitrogen dynamics in ice storm-damaged forest ecosystems: Implications for nitrogen limitation theory, Ecosystems, 6, 431–443, 2003.
Houlton, B. Z., Sigman, D. M., and Hedin, L. O.: Isotopic evidence for large gaseous nitrogen losses from tropical rainforests, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 103, 8745–8750, 2006.
Houlton, B. Z., Wang, Y. P., Vitousek, P. M., and Field, C. B.: A unifying framework for dinitrogen fixation in the terrestrial biosphere, Nature, 454, 327–U334, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07028, 2008.
Houlton, B. Z., Boyer, E., Finzi, A., Galloway, J., Leach, A., Liptzin, D., Melillo, J., Rosenstock, T. S., Sobota, D., and Townsend, A. R.: Intentional versus unintentional nitrogen use in the United States: trends, efficiency and implications, Biogeochemistry, 114, 11–23, 2013.
Hungate, B., Dukes, J., Shaw, M., Luo, Y., and Field, C.: Nitrogen and climate change, Science, 302, 1512–1513, 2003.
Hurd, T., Raynal, D., and Schwintzer, C.: Symbiotic N2 fixation of Alnus incana ssp. rugosa in shrub wetlands of the Adirondack Mountains, New York, USA, Oecologia, 126, 94–103, 2001.
Izquierdo, J. E., Houlton, B. Z., and van Huysen, T. L.: Evidence for progressive phosphorus limitation over long-term ecosystem development: Examination of a biogeochemical paradigm, Plant Soil, 367, 135–147, 2013.
Jenny, H.: Factors of Soil Formation: A system of quantiative pedology, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 1941.
Jenny, H.: Causes of the High Nitrogen and Organic Matter Content of Certain Tropical Forest Soils, Soil Sci., 69, 63–69, 1950.
Jenny, H.: Role of the plant factor in the pedogenic functions, Ecology, 39, 5–16, 1958.
Jenny, H.: The Soil Resource, Ecological Studies, edited by: Billings, W. D., Springer-Verlag, New York, 377 pp., 1980.
Jenny, H., Arkley, R. J., and Schultz, A. M.: The pygmy forest-podsol ecoystem and its dune associates of the mendocino coast, Madrono, 20, 60–74, 1969.
Johnson, D. W. and Todd, D. E.: Harvesting effects on long-term changes in nutrient pools of mixed oak forest, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 62, 1725–1735, 1998.
Johnson, D. W. and Turner, J.: Nitrogen budgets of forest ecoystems: A review, Forest Ecol. Manage., 318, 370–379, 2014.
Jongmans, A. G., vanBreemen, N., Lundstrom, U., vanHees, P. A. W., Finlay, R. D., Srinivasan, M., Unestam, T., Giesler, R., Melkerud, P. A., and Olsson, M.: Rock-eating fungi, Nature, 389, 682–683, https://doi.org/10.1038/39493, 1997.
Kristensen, H. L., Gundersen, P., Callesen, I., and Reinds, G. J.: Throughfall nitrogen deposition has different impacts on soil solution nitrate concentration in European coniferous and deciduous forests, Ecosystems, 7, 180–192, 2004.
Kump, L. R., Brantley, S. L., and Arthur, M. A.: Chemical, weathering, atmospheric CO2, and climate, Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 28, 611–667, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.611, 2000.
Lamarque, J. F., Kiehl, J. T., Brasseur, G. P., Butler, T., Cameron-Smith, P., Collins, W. D., Collins, W. J., Granier, C., Hauglustaine, D., Hess, P. G., Holland, E. A., Horowitz, L., Lawrence, M. G., McKenna, D., Merilees, P., Prather, M. J., Rasch, P. J., Rotman, D., Shindell, D., and Thornton, P.: Assessing future nitrogen deposition and carbon cycle feedback using a multimodel approach: Analysis of nitrogen deposition, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, D19303, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jd005825, 2005.
Lasaga, A. C., Soler, J. M., Ganor, J., Burch, T. E., and Nagy, K. L.: Chemical-weathering rate laws and global geochemical cycles, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58, 2361–2386, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90016-7, 1994.
LeBauer, D. S. and Treseder, K. K.: Nitrogen limitation of net primary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems is globally distributed, Ecology, 89, 371–379, 2008.
Lindberg, S. and Owens, J.: Throughfall studies of deposition to forest edges and gaps in montane ecosystems, Biogeochemistry, 19, 173–194, 1992.
Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Han, W., Tang, A., Shen, J., Cui, Z., Vitousek, P., Erisman, J. W., Goulding, K., and Christie, P.: Enhanced nitrogen deposition over China, Nature, 494, 459–462, 2013.
Lovett, G. M.: Atmospheric deposition of nutrients and pollutants in North America: an ecological perspective, Ecol. Appl., 4, 629–950, 1994.
Luo, Y., Su, B., Currie, W. S., Dukes, J. S., Finzi, A., Hartwig, U., Hungate, B., McMurtrie, R. E., Oren, R., Parton, W. J., Pataki, D. E., Shaw, M. R., Zak, D. R., and Field, C. B.: Progressive nitrogen limitation of ecosystem responses to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide, Bioscience, 54, 731–739, 2004.
Maher, K.: The dependence of chemical weathering rates on fluid residence time, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 294, 101–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.03.010, 2010.
Mahowald, N., Jickells, T. D., Baker, A. R., Artaxo, P., Benitez-Nelson, C. R., Bergametti, G., Bond, T. C., Chen, Y., Cohen, D. D., and Herut, B.: Global distribution of atmospheric phosphorus sources, concentrations and deposition rates, and anthropogenic impacts, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 22, GB4026, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GB003240, 2008.
Martinelli, L. A., Piccolo, M. C., Townsend, A. R., Vitousek, P. M., Cuevas, E., McDowell, W., Robertson, G. P., Santos, O. C., and Treseder, K.: Nitrogen stable isotopic composition of leaves and soil: Tropical versus temperate forests, Biogeochemistry, 46, 45–65, 1999.
Matson, P. A., McDowell, W. H., Townsend, A. R., and Vitousek, P. M.: The globalization of N deposition: ecosystem consequences in tropical environments, Biogeochemistry, 46, 67–83, 1999.
Matzek, V. and Vitousek, P.: Nitrogen Fixation in Bryophytes, Lichens, and Decaying Wood along a Soil-age Gradient in Hawaiian Montane Rain Forest, Biotropica, 35, 12–19, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2003.tb00257.x, 2003.
McGroddy, M. E., Daufresne, T., and Hedin, L. O.: Scaling of C : N : P stoichiometry in forests worldwide: Implications of terrestrial redfield-type ratios, Ecology, 85, 2390–2401, 2004.
Menge, D. N. L. and Hedin, L. O.: Nitrogen fixation in different biogeochemical niches along a 120 000-year chronosequence in New Zealand, Ecology, 90, 2190–2201, 2009.
Menge, D. N. L., Levin, S. A., and Hedin, L. O.: Facultative versus Obligate Nitrogen Fixation Strategies and Their Ecosystem Consequences, Am. Nat., 174, 465–477, https://doi.org/10.1086/605377, 2009.
Menge, D. N. L., Lichstein, J. W., and Angeles-Perez, G.: Nitrogen fixation strategies can explain the latitudinal shift in nitrogen-fixing tree abundance, Ecology, 2236–2245, 2014.
Milliman, J. D. and Syvitski, J. P. M.: Geomorphic tectonic control of sediment discharge to the ocean – the importance of small mountainous rivers, J. Geol., 100, 525–544, 1992.
Milne, G.: Normal erosion as a factor in soil profile development, Nature, 138, 548–549, https://doi.org/10.1038/138548c0, 1936.
Montgomery, D. R. and Brandon, M. T.: Topographic controls on erosion rates in tectonically active mountain ranges, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 201, 481–489, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0012-821x(02)00725-2, 2002.
Morford, S. L.: Quantifying Rock Nitrogen Inputs to the Terrestrial Biosphere, Ph.D., Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California – Davis, 2014.
Morford, S. L., Houlton, B. Z., and Dahlgren, R. A.: Increased forest ecosystem carbon and nitrogen storage from nitrogen rich bedrock, Nature, 477, 78–U88, https://doi.org/10.1038/Nature10415, 2011.
Okin, G. S., Mahowald, N., Chadwick, O. A., and Artaxo, P.: Impact of desert dust on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 18, GB2005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GB002145, 2004.
Pagani, M., Caldeira, K., Berner, R., and Beerling, D. J.: The role of terrestrial plants in limiting atmospheric CO2 decline over the past 24 million years, Nature, 460, 85–88, 2009.
Peltzer, D. A., Wardle, D. A., Allison, V. J., Baisden, W. T., Bardgett, R. D., Chadwick, O. A., Condron, L. M., Parfitt, R. L., Porder, S., Richardson, S. J., Turner, B. L., Vitousek, P. M., Walker, J., and Walker, L. R.: Understanding ecosystem retrogression, Ecol. Monogr., 80, 509–529, https://doi.org/10.1890/09-1552.1, 2010.
Perakis, S., Sinkhorn, E., and Compton, J.: δ15N constraints on long-term nitrogen balances in temperate forests, Oecologia, 167, 793–807, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-011-2016-y, 2011.
Porder, S. and Chadwick, O. A.: Climate and soil-age constraints on nutrient uplift and retention by plants, Ecology, 90, 623–636, https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1739.1, 2009.
Porder, S. and Hilley, G. E.: Linking chronosequences with the rest of the world: predicting soil phosphorus content in denuding landscapes, Biogeochemistry, 102, 153–166, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-010-9428-3, 2011.
Porder, S., Paytan, A., and Vitousek, P. M.: Erosion and landscape development affect plant nutrient status in the Hawaiian Islands, Oecologia (Berlin), 142, 440–449, 2005.
Porder, S., Clark, D. A., and Vitousek, P. M.: Persistence of rock-derived nutrients in the wet tropical forests of La Selva, Costa Rica, Ecology, 87, 594–602, 2006.
Porder, S., Vitousek, P. M., Chadwick, O. A., Chamberlain, C. P., and Hilley, G. E.: Uplift, erosion, and phosphorus limitation in terrestrial ecosystems, Ecosystems, 10, 159–171, 2007.
Portenga, E. W. and Bierman, P. R.: Understanding Earth's eroding surface with 10Be, GSA Today, 21, 4–10, https://doi.org/10.1130/G111A.1, 2011.
Rasmussen, C., Matsuyama, N., Dahlgren, R. A., Southard, R. J., and Brauer, N.: Soil genesis and mineral transformation across an environmental gradient on andesitic lahar, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 71, 225–237, https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2006.0100, 2007.
Rasmussen, C., Brantley, S., Richter, D. D., Blum, A., Dixon, J., and White, A. F.: Strong climate and tectonic control on plagioclase weathering in granitic terrain, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 301, 521–530, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.11.037, 2011.
Rastetter, E. B., Vitousek, P. M., Field, C., Shaver, G. R., Herbert, D., and Agren, G. I.: Resource optimization and symbiotic nitrogen fixation, Ecosystems, 4, 369–388, 2001.
Raymo, M. E., Ruddiman, W. F., and Froelich, P. N.: Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles, Geology, 16, 649–653, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0649:iolcmb>2.3.co;2, 1988.
Reed, S. C., Cleveland, C. C., and Townsend, A. R.: Functional ecology of free-living nitrogen fixation: a contemporary perspective, Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. System., 42, 489–512, 2011.
Riebe, C. S., Kirchner, J. W., and Finkel, R. C.: Erosional and climatic effects on long-term chemical weathering rates in granitic landscapes spanning diverse climate regimes, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 224, 547–562, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.05.019, 2004.
Roering, J. J., Kirchner, J. W., and Dietrich, W. E.: Evidence for nonlinear, diffusive sediment transport on hillslopes and implications for landscape morphology, Water Resour. Res., 35, 853–870, https://doi.org/10.1029/1998wr900090, 1999.
Schimel, D., Stillwell, M. A., and Woodmansee, R. G.: Biogeochemistry of C, N, and P in a soil catena of the shortgrass steppe, Ecology, 66, 276–282, https://doi.org/10.2307/1941328, 1985.
Schlesinger, W., Bruijnzeel, L. A., Bush, M., Klein, E., Mace, K., Raikes, J., and Whittaker, R. J.: The biogeochemistry of phosphorus after the first century of soil development on Rakata Island, Krakatau, Indonesia, Biogeochemistry, 40, 37–55, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005838929706, 1998.
Schlesinger, W. H.: Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change, 2nd Edn., Academic Press, San Diego, 588 pp., 1997.
Schlesinger, W. H.: On the fate of anthropogenic nitrogen, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 106, 203–208, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0810193105, 2009.
Schlesinger, W. H. and Bernhardt, E. S.: Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change, Academic press, 2013.
Smeck, N. E.: Phosphorus – indicator of pedogenetic weathering processes, Soil Sci., 115, 199–206, https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197303000-00005, 1973.
Smithwick, E. A., Turner, M. G., Mack, M. C., and Chapin III, F. S.: Postfire soil N cycling in northern conifer forests affected by severe, stand-replacing wildfires, Ecosystems, 8, 163–181, 2005.
Sprent, J. I. and Raven, J. A.: Evolution of Nitrogen-Fixing Symbioses, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Sec. B, 85, 215–237, 1985.
Stallard, R. F.: Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: Coupling weathering and erosion to carbon burial, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 12, 231–258, 1998.
Stallard, R. F. and Edmond, J. M.: Geochemistry of the Amazon .2. The influence of geology and weathering environment on the dissolved-load, J. Geophys. Res.-Ocean. Atmos., 88, 9671–9688, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC088iC14p09671, 1983.
Strathouse, S. M., Sposito, G., Sullivan, P. J., and Lund, L. J.: Geologic Nitrogen – a potential geochemical hazard in the San-Joaquin Valley, California, J. Environ. Qual., 9, 54–60, 1980.
Sullivan, B. W., Alvarez-Clare, S., Castle, S. C., Porder, S., Reed, S. C., Schreeg, L., Townsend, A. R., and Cleveland, C. C.: Assessing nutrient limitation in complex forested ecosystems: alternatives to large-scale fertilization experiments, Ecology, 95, 668–681, 2014a.
Sullivan, B. W., Smith, W. K., Townsend, A. R., Nasto, M. K., Reed, S. C., Chazdon, R. L., and Cleveland, C. C.: Spatially robust estimates of biological nitrogen (N) fixation imply substantial human alteration of the tropical N cycle, Proc. Natl. Aca. Sci., 111, 8101–8106, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320646111, 2014b.
Sylvester-Bradley, R., De Oliveira, L., De PodestáFilho, J., and St John, T.: Nodulation of legumes, nitrogenase activity of roots and occurrence of nitrogen-fixing< > Azospirillum< > ssp. in representative soils of central Amazonia, Agro-Ecosystems, 6, 249–266, 1980.
Taylor, L., Leake, J., Quirk, J., Hardy, K., Banwart, S., and Beerling, D.: Biological weathering and the long-term carbon cycle: integrating mycorrhizal evolution and function into the current paradigm, Geobiology, 7, 171–191, 2009.
ter Steege, H., Pitman, N. C. A., Phillips, O. L., Chave, J., Sabatier, D., Duque, A., Molino, J. F., Prevost, M. F., Spichiger, R., Castellanos, H., von Hildebrand, P., and Vasquez, R.: Continental-scale patterns of canopy tree composition and function across Amazonia, Nature, 443, 444–447, 2006.
Thornton, P. E., Lamarque, J. F., Rosenbloom, N. A., and Mahowald, N. M.: Influence of carbon-nitrogen cycle coupling on land model response to CO2 fertilization and climate variability, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 21, GB4018, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GB002868, 2007.
van Scholl, L., Hoffland, E., and van Breemen, N.: Organic anion exudation by ectomycorrhizal fungi and Pinus sylvestris in response to nutrient deficiencies, New Phytol., 170, 153–163, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01649.x, 2006.
van Scholl, L., Kuyper, T. W., Smits, M. M., Landeweert, R., Hoffland, E., and van Breemen, N.: Rock-eating mycorrhizas: their role in plant nutrition and biogeochemical cycles, Plant Soil, 303, 35–47, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9513-0, 2008.
Vitousek, P.: Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawai'i as a Model System, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 223 pp., 2004.
Vitousek, P., Chadwick, O., Matson, P., Allison, S., Derry, L., Kettley, L., Luers, A., Mecking, E., Monastra, V., and Porder, S.: Erosion and the rejuvenation of weathering-derived nutrient supply in an old tropical landscape, Ecosystems, 6, 762–772, 2003.
Vitousek, P. M.: Litterfall, nutrient cycling, and nutrient limitation in tropical forests, Ecology, 65, 285–298, 1984.
Vitousek, P. M. and Farrington, H.: Nutrient limitation and soil development: Experimental test of a biogeochemical theory, Biogeochemistry (Dordrecht), 37, 63–75, 1997.
Vitousek, P. M. and Field, C. B.: Ecosystem constraints to symbiotic nitrogen fixers: A simple model and its implications, Biogeochemistry, 46, 179–202, 1999.
Vitousek, P. M. and Hobbie, S.: Heterotrophic nitrogen fixation in decomposing litter: patterns and regulation, Ecology, 81, 2366–2376, 2000.
Vitousek, P. M. and Howarth, R. W.: Nitrogen limitation on land and in the sea: How can it occur?, Biogeochemistry, 13, 87–115, 1991.
Vitousek, P. M., Walker, L. R., Whiteacre, L. D., Mueller-Dombois, D., and Matson, P. A.: Biological invasion by Myrica faya alters ecosystem development in Hawaii, Science, 238, 802–804, 1987.
Vitousek, P. M., Aber, J. D., Howarth, R. W., Likens, G. E., Matson, P. A., Schindler, D. W., Schlesinger, W. H., and Tilman, D. G.: Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences, Ecol. Appl., 7, 737–751, 1997.
Vitousek, P. M., Cassman, K., Cleveland, C., Crews, T., Field, C. B., Grimm, N. B., Howarth, R. W., Marino, R., Martinelli, L., Rastetter, E. B., and Sprent, J. I.: Towards an ecological understanding of biological nitrogen fixation, Biogeochemistry, 57, 1–45, 2002.
Vitousek, P. M., Porder, S., Houlton, B. Z., and Chadwick, O. A.: Terrestrial phosphorus limitation: mechanisms, implications, and nitrogen-phosphorus interactions, Ecol. Appl., 20, 5–15, 2010.
Walker, L.: Nitrogen fixers and species replacements in primary succession, Special publication of the British Ecological Society, 1993.
Walker, L. R., Clarkson, B. D., Silvester, W. B., and Clarkson, B. R.: Colonization dynamics and facilitative impacts of a nitrogen-fixing shrub in primary succession, J. Vegetation Sci., 14, 277–290, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02153.x, 2003.
Walker, T. W. and Syers, J. K.: Fate of phosphorus during pedogenesis, Geoderma, 15, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(76)90066-5, 1976.
Walvoord, M. A., Phillips, F. M., Stonestrom, D. A., Evans, R. D., Hartsough, P. C., Newman, B. D., and Striegl, R. G.: A reservoir of nitrate beneath desert soils, Science, 302, 1021–1024, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1086435, 2003.
Wang, Y. P. and Houlton, B. Z.: Nitrogen constraints on terrestrial carbon uptake: Implications for the global carbon-climate feedback, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L24403, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009gl041009, 2009.
Wang, Y. P., Houlton, B. Z., and Field, C. B.: A model of biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus including symbiotic nitrogen fixation and phosphatase production, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 21, Gb1018, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006gb002797, 2007.
Wardle, D. A., Walker, L. R., and Bardgett, R. D.: Ecosystem properties and forest decline in contrasting long-term chronosequences, Science, 305, 509–513, 2004.
West, A. J., Galy, A., and Bickle, M.: Tectonic and climatic controls on silicate weathering, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 235, 211–228, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2005.03.020, 2005.
White, A. F. and Blum, A. E.: Effects of climate on chemical-weathering in watersheds, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 59, 1729–1747, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(95)00078-e, 1995.
Williams, J. Z., Bandstra, J. Z., Pollard, D., and Brantley, S. L.: The temperature dependence of feldspar dissolution determined using a coupled weathering-climate model for Holocene-aged loess soils, Geoderma, 156, 11–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.12.029, 2010.
Wurzburger, N., Bellenger, J. P., Kraepiel, A. M., and Hedin, L. O.: Molybdenum and phosphorus interact to constrain asymbiotic nitrogen fixation in tropical forests, PLoS One, 7, e33710, 2012.
Yoo, K., Amundson, R., Heimsath, A. M., and Dietrich, W. E.: Spatial patterns of soil organic carbon on hillslopes: Integrating geomorphic processes and the biological C cycle, Geoderma, 130, 47–65, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.01.008, 2006.
Yoo, K., Amundson, R., Heimsath, A. M., Dietrich, W. E., and Brimhall, G. H.: Integration of geochemical mass balance with sediment transport to calculate rates of soil chemical weathering and transport on hillslopes, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth Surf., 112, F02013, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jf000402, 2007.
Younger, P. D. and Kapustka, L. A.: N2 (C2H2) ase activity by Alnus incana ssp. rugosa (Betulaceae) in the northern hardwood forest, Am. J. Botany, 70, 30–39, 1983.
Zackrisson, O., DeLuca, T. H., Nilsson, M.-C., Sellstedt, A., and Berglund, L.: Nitrogen fixation increases with successional age in boreal forests, Ecology, 85, 3327–3334, 2004.
Zaehle, S., Friedlingstein, P., and Friend, A. D.: Terrestrial nitrogen feedbacks may accelerate future climate change, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L01401, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009gl041345, 2010a.
Zaehle, S., Friend, A. D., Friedlingstein, P., Dentener, F., Peylin, P., and Schulz, M.: Carbon and nitrogen cycle dynamics in the O-CN land surface model: 2. Role of the nitrogen cycle in the historical terrestrial carbon balance, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 24, GB1006, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009gb003522, 2010b.
Short summary
Nitrogen is necessary for life; this element is found in all DNA and protein molecules on Earth. Nitrogen also regulates the CO2 uptake capacity of land ecosystems, with important consequences for climate change. Here we provide evidence for a new source of nitrogen that is found in many of the rock materials on which natural ecosystems form. The idea that rocks are a widely distributed source of nitrogen challenges the standard paradigm of botany, soil, and ecosystem science.
Nitrogen is necessary for life; this element is found in all DNA and protein molecules on Earth....
Special issue