Articles | Volume 11, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-565-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-565-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review article
| 
13 Aug 2025
Review article |
| 13 Aug 2025
| 13 Aug 2025
Portable X-ray fluorescence as a tool for urban soil contamination analysis: accuracy, precision, and practicality
Eriell M. Jenkins
Delta Urban Soils Laboratory, School of Geosciences, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504, USA
John Galbraith
School of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
Delta Urban Soils Laboratory, School of Geosciences, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504, USA
Departments of Agronomy and Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
Related subject area
Soil pollution and remediation
Soil contamination in arid environments and assessment of remediation applying surface evaporation capacitor model: a case study from the Judean Desert, Israel
The clay mineralogy rather than the clay content determines radiocaesium adsorption in soils on a global scale
Cr(VI) reduction, electricity production, and microbial resistance variation in paddy soil under microbial fuel cell operation
Organic pollutant oxidation on manganese oxides in soils – the role of calcite indicated by geoelectrical and chemical analyses
Long-term legacy of phytoremediation on plant succession and soil microbial communities in petroleum-contaminated sub-Arctic soils
Investigating the synergistic potential of Si and biochar to immobilize Ni in a Ni-contaminated calcareous soil after Zea mays L. cultivation
Estimations of soil metal accumulation or leaching potentials under climate change scenarios: the example of copper on a European scale
Model-based analysis of erosion-induced microplastic delivery from arable land to the stream network of a mesoscale catchment
Increase in bacterial community induced tolerance to Cr in response to soil properties and Cr level in the soil
Organic and inorganic nitrogen amendments reduce biodegradation of biodegradable plastic mulch films
Research and management challenges following soil and landscape decontamination at the onset of the reopening of the Difficult-to-Return Zone, Fukushima (Japan)
Impact of agricultural management on soil aggregates and associated organic carbon fractions: analysis of long-term experiments in Europe
Miniaturised visible and near-infrared spectrometers for assessing soil health indicators in mine site rehabilitation
The application of biochar and oyster shell reduced cadmium uptake by crops and modified soil fertility and enzyme activities in contaminated soil
Reusing Fe water treatment residual as a soil amendment to improve physical function and flood resilience
Are agricultural plastic covers a source of plastic debris in soil? A first screening study
Mapping soil slaking index and assessing the impact of management in a mixed agricultural landscape
Assessing soil salinity dynamics using time-lapse electromagnetic conductivity imaging
Effectiveness of landscape decontamination following the Fukushima nuclear accident: a review
Evaluating the carbon sequestration potential of volcanic soils in southern Iceland after birch afforestation
Citrate and malonate increase microbial activity and alter microbial community composition in uncontaminated and diesel-contaminated soil microcosms
Development of a statistical tool for the estimation of riverbank erosion probability
Sediment loss and its cause in Puerto Rico watersheds
Carbon nanomaterials in clean and contaminated soils: environmental implications and applications
Rotem Golan, Ittai Gavrieli, Roee Katzir, Galit Sharabi, and Uri Nachshon
SOIL, 11, 395–412, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-395-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-395-2025, 2025
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This study investigates contaminant transport and accumulation in sandy arid soils, focusing on a severe pollution event in 2017 in the Ashalim Basin, Israel. It employs long-term field monitoring, lab experiments, and numerical models to understand pollutant transport dynamics. Findings reveal that contaminants persist near the surface and circulate vertically. The surface evaporation capacitor concept proves to be useful in predicting contaminant fate along the soil profile.
Margot Vanheukelom, Nina Haenen, Talal Almahayni, Lieve Sweeck, Nancy Weyns, May Van Hees, and Erik Smolders
SOIL, 11, 339–362, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-339-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-339-2025, 2025
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Radiocaesium (137Cs) in soil poses long-term risks of entering the food chain after nuclear accidents. This study examined its binding in soils with contrasting properties, questioning the concept that clay content controls the fate of 137Cs. Instead, soil mineralogy, such as illite content, plays a greater role. Soil structure also affects its availability as isolated soil fractions do not fully reflect intact soils. These findings improve predictions of 137Cs bioavailability in diverse soils.
Huan Niu, Can Wang, Xia Luo, Peihan Li, Hang Qiu, Liyue Jiang, Subati Maimaitiaili, Minghui Wu, Fei Xu, and Heng Xu
SOIL, 11, 323–338, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-323-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-323-2025, 2025
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We use the soil microbial fuel cell (SMFC) to eliminate Cr(VI) from paddy soil and for metal tolerance analysis, finding 93.76 % of Cr(VI) elimination, 0.97 V power output, and heavy-metal resistance gene elevation. The enrichment of exoelectrogens, Cr(VI) reducers, and tolerators contributed to SMFC performance. Bio-physical adsorption and electrochemical–microbial reduction simultaneously reduced Cr(VI).
Sonya S. Altzitser, Yael G. Mishael, and Nimrod Schwartz
SOIL, 11, 95–104, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-95-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-11-95-2025, 2025
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Our study uses a noninvasive geoelectrical method to monitor hydroquinone oxidation in MnO2-rich soil. We combined it with chemical analyses to observe real-time changes in soil pH, calcium, and manganese levels. Our findings reveal that MnO2 oxidation of hydroquinone triggers reactions such as calcite dissolution and amorphous manganese oxide formation. This research advances the understanding of soil–pollutant interactions and highlights the method's potential in tracking soil remediation.
Mary-Cathrine Leewis, Christopher Kasanke, Ondrej Uhlik, and Mary Beth Leigh
SOIL, 10, 551–566, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-551-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-551-2024, 2024
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In 1995, an initial study determined that using plants and fertilizers increased degradation of petroleum in soil; the site was then abandoned. In 2010, we returned to find that initial choices of plant and fertilizer use continued to cause changes in the plant and soil microbiomes. We also found evidence for the restoration of native vegetation with certain treatments, which indicates that this could be an important tool for communities that experience soil contamination.
Hamid Reza Boostani, Ailsa G. Hardie, Mahdi Najafi-Ghiri, Ehsan Bijanzadeh, Dariush Khalili, and Esmaeil Farrokhnejad
SOIL, 10, 487–503, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-487-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-487-2024, 2024
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In this work, the combined SM500 + S2 treatment was the most effective with respect to reducing the Ni water-soluble and exchangeable fraction. Application of Si and biochars decreased the soil Ni diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid and corn Ni shoot content. The study shows the synergistic potential of Si and sheep manure biochars for immobilizing soil Ni.
Laura Sereni, Julie-Maï Paris, Isabelle Lamy, and Bertrand Guenet
SOIL, 10, 367–380, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-367-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-367-2024, 2024
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We estimate the tendencies of copper (Cu) export in freshwater or accumulation in soils in Europe for the 21st century and highlight areas of importance for environmental monitoring. We develop a method combining computations of Cu partitioning coefficients between solid and solution phases with runoff data. The surfaces with potential for export or accumulation are roughly constant over the century, but the accumulation potential of Cu increases while leaching potential decreases for 2000–2095.
Raphael Rehm and Peter Fiener
SOIL, 10, 211–230, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-211-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-211-2024, 2024
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A carbon transport model was adjusted to study the importance of water and tillage erosion processes for particular microplastic (MP) transport across a mesoscale landscape. The MP mass delivered into the stream network represented a serious amount of MP input in the same range as potential MP inputs from wastewater treatment plants. In addition, most of the MP applied to arable soils remains in the topsoil (0–20 cm) for decades. The MP sink function of soil results in a long-term MP source.
Claudia Campillo-Cora, Daniel Arenas-Lago, Manuel Arias-Estévez, and David Fernández-Calviño
SOIL, 9, 561–571, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-561-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-561-2023, 2023
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Cr pollution is a global concern. The use of methodologies specifically related to Cr toxicity is appropriate, such as the pollution-induced community tolerance (PICT) methodology. The development of PICT was determined in 10 soils after Cr addition in the laboratory. The Cr-soluble fraction and dissolved organic carbon were the main variables determining the development of PICT (R2 = 95.6 %).
Sreejata Bandopadhyay, Marie English, Marife B. Anunciado, Mallari Starrett, Jialin Hu, José E. Liquet y González, Douglas G. Hayes, Sean M. Schaeffer, and Jennifer M. DeBruyn
SOIL, 9, 499–516, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-499-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-499-2023, 2023
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We added organic and inorganic nitrogen amendments to two soil types in a laboratory incubation study in order to understand how that would impact biodegradable plastic mulch (BDM) decomposition. We found that nitrogen amendments, particularly urea and inorganic nitrogen, suppressed BDM degradation in both soil types. However, we found limited impact of BDM addition on soil nitrification, suggesting that overall microbial processes were not compromised due to the addition of BDMs.
Olivier Evrard, Thomas Chalaux-Clergue, Pierre-Alexis Chaboche, Yoshifumi Wakiyama, and Yves Thiry
SOIL, 9, 479–497, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-479-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-479-2023, 2023
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Twelve years after the nuclear accident that occurred in Fukushima in March 2011, radioactive contamination remains a major concern in north-eastern Japan. The Japanese authorities completed an unprecedented decontamination programme. The central objective was to not expose local inhabitants to excessive radioactive doses. At the onset of the full reopening of the Difficult-to-Return Zone in 2023, the current review provides an update of a previous synthesis published in 2019.
Ioanna S. Panagea, Antonios Apostolakis, Antonio Berti, Jenny Bussell, Pavel Čermak, Jan Diels, Annemie Elsen, Helena Kusá, Ilaria Piccoli, Jean Poesen, Chris Stoate, Mia Tits, Zoltan Toth, and Guido Wyseure
SOIL, 8, 621–644, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-621-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-621-2022, 2022
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The potential to reverse the negative effects caused in topsoil by inversion tillage, using alternative agricultural practices, was evaluated. Reduced and no tillage, and additions of manure/compost, improved topsoil structure and OC content. Residue retention had a positive impact on structure. We concluded that the negative effects of inversion tillage can be mitigated by reducing tillage intensity or adding organic materials, optimally combined with non-inversion tillage.
Zefang Shen, Haylee D'Agui, Lewis Walden, Mingxi Zhang, Tsoek Man Yiu, Kingsley Dixon, Paul Nevill, Adam Cross, Mohana Matangulu, Yang Hu, and Raphael A. Viscarra Rossel
SOIL, 8, 467–486, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-467-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-467-2022, 2022
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We compared miniaturised visible and near-infrared spectrometers to a portable visible–near-infrared instrument, which is more expensive. Statistical and machine learning algorithms were used to model 29 key soil health indicators. Accuracy of the miniaturised spectrometers was comparable to the portable system. Soil spectroscopy with these tiny sensors is cost-effective and could diagnose soil health, help monitor soil rehabilitation, and deliver positive environmental and economic outcomes.
Bin Wu, Jia Li, Mingping Sheng, He Peng, Dinghua Peng, and Heng Xu
SOIL, 8, 409–419, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-409-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-409-2022, 2022
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Cadmium (Cd) contamination in soil has severely threatened human health. In this study, we investigated the possibility of applying oyster shell and biochar to reduce Cd uptake by crops and improve soil fertility and enzyme activities in field experiments under rice–oilseed rape rotation, which provided an economical and effective pathway to achieving an in situ remediation of the Cd-contaminated farmland.
Heather C. Kerr, Karen L. Johnson, and David G. Toll
SOIL, 8, 283–295, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-283-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-283-2022, 2022
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Adding an organo-mineral waste product from clean water treatment (WTR) is beneficial for a soil’s water retention, permeability, and strength properties. WTR added on its own significantly improves the shear strength and saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil. The co-application of WTR with compost provides the same benefits whilst also improving soil’s water retention properties, which is beneficial for environmental applications where the soil health is critical.
Zacharias Steinmetz, Paul Löffler, Silvia Eichhöfer, Jan David, Katherine Muñoz, and Gabriele E. Schaumann
SOIL, 8, 31–47, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-31-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-8-31-2022, 2022
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To scrutinize the contribution of agricultural plastic covers to plastic pollution, we quantified soil-associated plastic debris (≤ 2 mm) in and around agricultural fields covered with different plastics. PP fleeces and 50 µm thick PE films did not emit significant amounts of plastic debris into soil during their 4-month use. However, thinner and perforated PE foils (40 µm) were associated with elevated PE contents of up to 35 mg kg−1. Their long-term use may thus favor plastic accumulation.
Edward J. Jones, Patrick Filippi, Rémi Wittig, Mario Fajardo, Vanessa Pino, and Alex B. McBratney
SOIL, 7, 33–46, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-33-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-33-2021, 2021
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Soil physical health is integral to maintaining functional agro-ecosystems. A novel method of assessing soil physical condition using a smartphone app has been developed – SLAKES. In this study the SLAKES app was used to investigate aggregate stability in a mixed agricultural landscape. Cropping areas were found to have significantly poorer physical health than similar soils under pasture. Results were mapped across the landscape to identify problem areas and pinpoint remediation efforts.
Maria Catarina Paz, Mohammad Farzamian, Ana Marta Paz, Nádia Luísa Castanheira, Maria Conceição Gonçalves, and Fernando Monteiro Santos
SOIL, 6, 499–511, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-6-499-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-6-499-2020, 2020
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In this study electromagnetic induction (EMI) surveys and soil sampling were repeated over time to monitor soil salinity dynamics in an important agricultural area that faces risk of soil salinization. EMI data were converted to electromagnetic conductivity imaging through a mathematical inversion algorithm and converted to 2-D soil salinity maps until a depth of 1.35 m through a regional calibration. This is a non-invasive and cost-effective methodology that can be employed over large areas.
Olivier Evrard, J. Patrick Laceby, and Atsushi Nakao
SOIL, 5, 333–350, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-5-333-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-5-333-2019, 2019
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The Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident in March 2011 resulted in the contamination of Japanese landscapes with radioactive fallout. The objective of this review is to provide an overview of the decontamination strategies and their potential effectiveness in Japan. Overall, we believe it is important to synthesise the remediation lessons learnt following the FDNPP nuclear accident, which could be fundamental if radioactive fallout occurred somewhere on Earth in the future.
Matthias Hunziker, Olafur Arnalds, and Nikolaus J. Kuhn
SOIL, 5, 223–238, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-5-223-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-5-223-2019, 2019
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Afforestation on severely degraded volcanic soils/landscapes is an important process concerning ecological restoration in Iceland. These landscapes have a high potential to act as carbon sinks. We tested the soil (0–30 cm) of different stages of afforested (mountain birch) landscapes and analysed the quantity and quality of the soil organic carbon. There is an increase in the total SOC stock during the encroachment. The increase is mostly because of POM SOC. Such soils demand SOC quality tests.
Belinda C. Martin, Suman J. George, Charles A. Price, Esmaeil Shahsavari, Andrew S. Ball, Mark Tibbett, and Megan H. Ryan
SOIL, 2, 487–498, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-487-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-487-2016, 2016
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The aim of this paper was to determine the impact of citrate and malonate on microbial activity and community structure in uncontaminated and diesel-contaminated soil. The results suggest that these carboxylates can stimulate microbial activity and alter microbial community structure but appear to have a minimal effect on enhancing degradation of diesel. However, our results suggest that carboxylates may have an important role in shaping microbial communities even in contaminated soils.
E. A. Varouchakis, G. V. Giannakis, M. A. Lilli, E. Ioannidou, N. P. Nikolaidis, and G. P. Karatzas
SOIL, 2, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-1-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-1-2016, 2016
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A statistical methodology is proposed to predict the probability of presence or absence of erosion in a river section considering locally spatial correlated independent variables.
The proposed tool is easy to use and accurate and can be applied to any region and river. It requires information from easy-to-determine geomorphological and/or hydrological variables to provide the vulnerable locations. This tool could be used to assist in managing erosion and flooding events.
Y. Yuan, Y. Jiang, E. V. Taguas, E. G. Mbonimpa, and W. Hu
SOIL, 1, 595–602, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-595-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-595-2015, 2015
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A major environmental concern in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is increased sediment load to water reservoirs, to estuaries, and finally to coral reef areas. Our research found that sediment loss was mainly caused by interactions of development, heavy rainfall events, and steep mountainous slopes. These results improve our understanding of sediment loss resulting from changes in land use/cover, and will allow stakeholders to make more informed decisions about future land use planning.
M. J. Riding, F. L. Martin, K. C. Jones, and K. T. Semple
SOIL, 1, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-1-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-1-2015, 2015
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The behaviour of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) in soils is highly complex and dynamic. As a result, assessments of the possible risks CNMs pose within soil should be conducted on a case-by-case basis. Further work to assess the long-term stability and toxicity of CNM-sorbed contaminants, as well as the toxicity of CNMs themselves, is required to determine if their sorptive abilities can be applied to remedy environmental issues such as land contamination.
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Short summary
We explored how a portable tool can quickly and affordably test city soils for harmful metals like lead and arsenic. Traditional lab methods are accurate but slow and costly. By reviewing 84 studies, we found that portable X-ray fluorescence tools work well when properly used and calibrated. This can help identify contaminated areas faster, making urban gardening safer and helping communities grow food in healthier soil.
We explored how a portable tool can quickly and affordably test city soils for harmful metals...
