Articles | Volume 12, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-12-855-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-12-855-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Differences in organic carbon fractions and stability explain limited accumulation in loam and sandy loam under greenhouse conditions
Boyuan Tan
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Lu Yang
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Xun Xiao
State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
Chunji Li
College of Agriculture and Biology, Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering, Guangzhou 510550, China
Key Laboratory of Green Prevention and Control on Fruits and Vegetables in South China, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510550, China
Jing Tan
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Ning An
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Lingxuan Meng
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Yanli Yi
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Fengkui Qian
School of Humanities and Law, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110169, China
Na Li
Liaoning Academy of Agricultural Science, Shenyang, Liaoning 110866, China
Xue Liu
Key Liaoning Vocational College of Ecological Engineering, Shenyang 110101, China
Song Li
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Wei Han
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Cited articles
Almendros, G. and González-Pérez, J. A.: Soil organic carbon sequestration mechanisms and the chemical nature of soil organic matter – A review, Sustainability, 17, 6689, https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156689, 2025.
An, Z., Bernard, G. M., Ma, Z., Plante, A. F., Michaelis, V. K., Bork, E. W., Carlyle, C. N., Baah-Acheamfour, M., and Chang, S. X.: Forest land-use increases soil organic carbon quality but not its structural or thermal stability in a hedgerow system, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 321, 107617, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2021.107617, 2021.
Angst, G., Mueller, K. E., Castellano, M. J., Vogel, C., Wiesmeier, M., and Mueller, C. W.: Unlocking complex soil systems as carbon sinks: multi-pool management as the key, Nat. Commun., 14, 2967, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38700-5, 2023.
Beillouin, D., Corbeels, M., Demenois, J., Berre, D., Boyer, A., Fallot, A., Feder, F., and Cardinael, R.: A global meta-analysis of soil organic carbon in the Anthropocene, Nat. Commun., 14, 3700, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39338-z, 2023.
Christy, I., Moore, A., Myrold, D., and Kleber, M.: A mechanistic inquiry into the applicability of permanganate oxidizable carbon as a soil health indicator, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 87, 1083–1095, https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20569, 2023.
Das, A., Purakayastha, T. J., Ahmed, N., Das, R., Biswas, S., Shivay, Y. S., Sehgal, V. K., Rani, K., Trivedi, A., Tigga, P., Sahoo, J., Chakraborty, R., and Sen, S.: Influence of clay mineralogy on soil organic carbon stabilization under tropical climate, Indian J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 23, 1003–1018, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-022-01099-x, 2023a.
Das, S., Liptzin, D., and Maharjan, B.: Long-term manure application improves soil health and stabilizes carbon in continuous maize production system, Geoderma, 430, 116338, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116338, 2023b.
Datta, R., Kelkar, A., Baraniya, D., Molaei, A., Moulick, A., Meena, R. S., and Formanek, P.: Enzymatic degradation of lignin in soil: A Review, Sustainability, 9, 1163, https://doi.org/10.3390/su9071163, 2017.
Denoncourt, C., Chantigny, M. H., Angers, D. A., Maillard, É., and Halde, C.: Animal manure application promotes nitrogen and organic carbon accumulation in soil organic matter fractions: A global meta-analysis, Sci. Total Environ., 996, 180097, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.180097, 2025.
Dietz, C. L., Jackson, R. D., Ruark, M. D., and Sanford, G. R.: Soil carbon maintained by perennial grasslands over 30 years but lost in field crop systems in a temperate Mollisol, Commun. Earth Environ., 5, 360, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.180097, 2024.
Elias, D. M. O., Mason, K. E., Goodall, T., Taylor, A., Zhao, P., Otero-Fariña, A., Chen, H., Peacock, C. L., Ostle, N. J., Griffiths, R., Chapman, P. J., Holden, J., Banwart, S., McNamara, N. P., and Whitaker, J.: Microbial and mineral interactions decouple litter quality from soil organic matter formation, Nat. Commun., 15, 10063, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54446-0, 2024.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations): World reference base for soil resources 2014: International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps, World Soil Resources Reports No. 106, FAO, Rome, https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i3794en (last access: 5 September 2026), 2014.
Fohrafellner, J., Keiblinger, K. M., Zechmeister-Boltenstern, S., Murugan, R., Spiegel, H., and Valkama, E.: Cover crops affect pool specific soil organic carbon in cropland – A meta-analysis, Eur. J. Soil Sci., 75, e13472, https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13472, 2024.
Francioli, D., Schulz, E., Lentendu, G., Wubet, T., Buscot, F., and Reitz, T.: Mineral vs. organic amendments: Microbial community structure, activity and abundance of agriculturally relevant microbes are driven by long-term fertilization strategies, Front. Microbiol., 7, 1446, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01446, 2016.
Gross, A. and Glaser, B.: Meta-analysis on how manure application changes soil organic carbon storage, Sci. Rep., 11, 5516, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-82739-7, 2021.
Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., and Sarstedt, M.: A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), 3rd edn., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/a-primer-on-partial-least-squares-structural-equation-modeling-pls-sem/book270548 (last access: 5 September 2026), 2022.
Hao, X., Ma, X., Sun, L., Liu, S., Ji, J., Zhou, B., Zhao, Y., Zheng, Y., Kuang, E., Liu, Y., and Zhao, S.: High ratio of manure substitution enhanced soil organic carbon storage via increasing particulate organic carbon and nutrient availability, Plants, 14, 2045, https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14132045, 2025.
Islam, M. R., Singh, B., and Dijkstra, F. A.: Stabilisation of soil organic matter: interactions between clay and microbes, Biogeochemistry, 160, 145–158, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-022-00956-2, 2022.
Ji, Y., Zhao, Y., Han, X., Chen, X., Yan, J., Lu, X., Zhu, Y., and Zou, W.: Effect of long-term fertilization practices on the stability of soil organic matter in the northeast black soil region in China, Agronomy, 14, 2272, https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102272, 2024.
Jindaluang, W., Kheoruenromne, I., Suddhiprakarn, A., Singh, B. P., and Singh, B.: Influence of soil texture and mineralogy on organic matter content and composition in physically separated fractions soils of Thailand, Geoderma, 195–196, 207–219, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.12.003, 2013.
Just, C., Armbruster, M., Barkusky, D., Baumecker, M., Diepolder, M., Döring, T. F., Heigl, L., Honermeier, B., Jate, M., Merbach, I., Rusch, C., Schubert, D., Schulz, F., Schweitzer, K., Seidel, S., Sommer, M., Spiegel, H., Thumm, U., Urbatzka, P., Zimmer, J., Kögel-Knabner, I., and Wiesmeier, M.: Soil organic carbon sequestration in agricultural long-term field experiments as derived from particulate and mineral-associated organic matter, Geoderma, 434, 116472, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116472, 2023.
Kleber, M., Eusterhues, K., Keiluweit, M., Mikutta, C., Mikutta, R., and Nico, P. S.: Chapter one – Mineral–organic associations: formation, properties, and relevance in soil environments, Adv. Agron., 130, 1–140, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2014.10.005, 2015.
Kubar, K. A., Huang, L., Lu, J., Li, X., Xue, B., and Yin, Z.: Long-term tillage and straw returning effects on organic C fractions and chemical composition of SOC in rice-rape cropping system, Arch. Agron. Soil Sci., 65, 125–137, https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2018.1490726, 2018.
Lan, X., Shan, J., Huang, Y., Liu, X., Lv, Z., Ji, J., Hou, H., Xia, W., and Liu, Y.: Effects of long-term manure substitution regimes on soil organic carbon composition in a red paddy soil of southern China, Soil Till. Res., 221, 105395, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105395, 2022.
Lavallee, J. M., Soong, J. L., and Cotrufo, M. F.: Conceptualizing soil organic matter into particulate and mineral-associated forms to address global change in the 21st century, Glob. Change Biol., 26, 261–273, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14859, 2020.
Li, Y., Li, Z., Cui, S., Liang, G., and Zhang, Q.: Microbial-derived carbon components are critical for enhancing soil organic carbon in no-tillage croplands: A global perspective, Soil Till. Res., 205, 104758, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2020.104758, 2021.
Liang, G., Stark, J., and Waring, B. G.: Mineral reactivity determines root effects on soil organic carbon, Nat. Commun., 14, 4962, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40768-y, 2023.
Ling, J., Dungait, J. A. J., Delgado-Baquerizo, M., Cui, Z., Zhou, R., Zhang, W., Gao, Q., Chen, Y., Yue, S., Kuzyakov, Y., Zhang, F., Chen, X., and Tian, J.: Soil organic carbon thresholds control fertilizer effects on carbon accrual in croplands worldwide, Nat. Commun., 16, 3009, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-57981-6, 2025.
Liu, L., Yang, J., Wang, J., Yu, Q., Wei, C., Jiang, L., Huang, J., Zhang, Y., Jiang, Y., Zhang, H., and Han, X.: Increase in mineral-associated organic carbon does not offset the decrease in particulate organic carbon under long-term nitrogen enrichment in a steppe ecosystem, Soil Biol. Biochem., 202, 109695, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2024.109695, 2025.
Liu, Y., Zhou, Z., Zhang, X., Xu, X., Chen, H., and Xiong, Z.: Net global warming potential and greenhouse gas intensity from the double rice system with integrated soil–crop system management: A three-year field study, Atmos. Environ., 116, 92–101, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.06.018, 2015.
Lu, F., Wang, X., Han, B., Ouyang, Z., Duan, X., Hua, Z., and Miao, H.: Soil carbon sequestrations by nitrogen fertilizer application, straw return and no-tillage in China's cropland, Glob. Change Biol., 15, 281–305, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01743.x, 2009.
Lu, R. K.: Analysis methods of soil agricultural chemistry, China Agricultural Science and Technology Press, Beijing, ISBN 978-7-80119-925-6, 2000 (in Chinese).
Mao, H. R., Cotrufo, M. F., Hart, S. C., Sullivan, B. W., Zhu, X., Zhang, J., Liang, C., and Zhu, M.: Dual role of silt and clay in the formation and accrual of stabilized soil organic carbon, Soil Biol. Biochem., 192, 109390, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2024.109390, 2024.
Mustafa, A., Frouz, J., Naveed, M., Ping, Z., Nan, S., Minggang, X., and Núñez-Delgado, A.: Stability of soil organic carbon under long-term fertilization: Results from 13C NMR analysis and laboratory incubation, J. Integr. Agr., 205, 112476, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112476, 2022.
Niu, Y., Li, Y., Lou, M., Cheng, Z., Ma, R., Guo, H., Zhou, J., Jia, H., Fan, L., and Wang, T.: Microbial transformation mechanisms of particulate organic carbon to mineral-associated organic carbon at the chemical molecular level: Highlighting the effects of ambient temperature and soil moisture, Soil Biol. Biochem., 195, 109454, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2024.109454, 2024.
Oldfield, E. E., Bradford, M. A., and Wood, S. A.: Global meta-analysis of the relationship between soil organic matter and crop yields, SOIL, 5, 15–32, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-5-15-2019, 2019.
Panettieri, M., Knicker, H., Murillo, J. M., Madejón, E., and Hatcher, P. G.: Soil organic matter degradation in an agricultural chronosequence under different tillage regimes evaluated by organic matter pools, enzymatic activities and CPMAS 13C NMR, Soil Biol. Biochem., 78, 170–181, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.07.021, 2014.
Peng, Y., Biswas, A., Adamowski, J. F., Zhang, X., Li, Y., Li, L., Peng, Y., and Cao, J.: Sources and stability of particulate organic matter (POM) and mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM) on the Loess Plateau: Implications for soil carbon management, Ecol. Indic., 179, 114162, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2025.114162, 2025.
Rocci, K. S., Lavallee, J. M., Stewart, C. E., and Cotrufo, M. F.: Soil organic carbon response to global environmental change depends on its distribution between mineral-associated and particulate organic matter: A meta-analysis, Sci. Total Environ., 793, 148569, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148569, 2021.
Schmidt, M. W. I., Torn, M. S., Abiven, S., Dittmar, T., Guggenberger, G., Janssens, I. A., Kleber, M., Kögel-Knabner, I., Lehmann, J., Manning, D. A. C., Nannipieri, P., Rasse, D. P., Weiner, S., and Trumbore, S. E.: Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property, Nature, 478, 49–56, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10386, 2011.
Si, Q., Chen, K., Wei, B., Zhang, Y., Sun, X., and Liang, J.: Dissolved carbon flow to particulate organic carbon enhances soil carbon sequestration, SOIL, 10, 441–450, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-10-441-2024, 2024.
Simon, C., Miltner, A., Mulder, I., Kaiser, K., Lorenz, M., Thiele-Bruhn, S., and Lechtenfeld, O.: Long-term effects of manure addition on soil organic matter molecular composition: Carbon transformation as a major driver of energetic potential, Soil Biol. Biochem., 205, 109755, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2025.109755, 2025.
Six, J., Callewaert, P., Lenders, S., De Gryze, S., Morris, S. J., Gregorich, E. G., Paul, E. A., and Paustian, K.: Measuring and understanding carbon storage in afforested soils by physical fractionation, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 66, 1981–1987, https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2002.1981, 2002.
Stewart, C. E., Paustian, K., Conant, R. T., Plante, A. F., and Six, J.: Soil carbon saturation: concept, evidence and evaluation, Biogeochemistry, 86, 19–31, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-007-9140-0, 2007.
Tan, B., Xiao, X., Yang, L., Meng, L., Li, S., An, N., Lu, Y., Wang, W., Han, W., and Yi, Y.: Mechanisms of soil structure stability in greenhouse: the balancing role of binding and dispersing agents, J. Soils Sediments, 25, 2371–2386, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-025-04079-7, 2025.
Vance, E. D., Brookes, P. C., and Jenkinson, D. S.: An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C, Soil Biol. Biochem., 19, 703–707, https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(87)90052-6, 1987.
Vieira, F. C. B., Bayer, C., Zanatta, J. A., Dieckow, J., Mielniczuk, J., and He, Z. L.: Carbon management index based on physical fractionation of soil organic matter in an Acrisol under long-term no-till cropping systems, Soil Till. Res., 96, 195–204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2007.06.007, 2007.
Wiesmeier, M., Urbanski, L., Hobley, E., Lang, B., von Lützow, M., Marin-Spiotta, E., van Wesemael, B., Rabot, E., Ließ, M., Garcia-Franco, N., Wollschläger, U., Vogel, H., and Kögel-Knabner, I.: Soil organic carbon storage as a key function of soils – a review of drivers and indicators at various scales, Geoderma, 333, 149–162, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.07.026, 2019.
Witzgall, K., Vidal, A., Schubert, D. I., Höschen, C., Schweizer, S. A., Buegger, F., Pouteau, V., Chenu, C., and Mueller, C. W.: Particulate organic matter as a functional soil component for persistent soil organic carbon, Nat. Commun., 12, 4115, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24192-8, 2021.
Xu, L., Wang, M., Tian, Y., Shi, X., Shi, Y., Yu, Q., Xu, S., Pan, J., Li, X., and Xie, X.: Relationship between macropores and soil organic carbon fractions under long-term organic manure application, Land Degrad. Dev., 31, 1344–1354, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3525, 2020.
Yan, H., Fan, W., and Wu, J.: Effects of continuous manure application on the microbial community and labile organic carbon fractions, Agriculture, 13, 2096, https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13112096, 2023.
Yang, L., Han, W., Tan, B., Wu, Y., Li, S., and Yi, Y.: Effects of nutrient accumulation and microbial community changes on tomato fusarium wilt disease in greenhouse soil, Sustainability, 16, 7756, https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177756, 2024.
Yao, B., Zeng, X., Pang, L., Kong, X., Tian, K., Ji, Y., Sun, S., and Tian, X.: The photodegradation of lignin methoxyl C promotes fungal decomposition of lignin aromatic C measured with 13C-CPMAS NMR, J. Fungi, 8, 900, https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8090900, 2022.
Zhang, Y., Hagedorn, F., Guidi, C., and Yang, L.: Limited soil carbon storage under long-term organic fertilization in solar greenhouses, Soil Use Manage., 38, 1614–1627, https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12832, 2022.
Zhao, Z., Mao, Y., Gao, S., Lu, C., Pan, C., and Li, X.: Organic carbon accumulation and aggregate formation in soils under organic and inorganic fertilizer management practices in a rice-wheat cropping system, Sci. Rep., 13, 3665, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30541-y, 2023.
Zheng, W., Rao, C., Wu, Q., Wang, E., Jiang, X., Xu, Y., Hu, L., Chen, Y., Liang, X., and Yan, W.: Changes in the soil labile organic carbon fractions following bedrock exposure rate in a karst context, Forests, 13, 516, https://doi.org/10.3390/f13040516, 2022.
Zhou, Z., Ren, C., Wang, C., Delgado-Baquerizo, M., Luo, Y., Luo, Z., Du, Z., Zhu, B., Yang, Y., Jiao, S., Zhao, F., Cai, A., Yang, G., and Wei, G.: Global turnover of soil mineral-associated and particulate organic carbon, Nat. Commun., 15, 5329, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49743-7, 2024.
Short summary
In greenhouses, long-term manure application does not always lead to lasting soil carbon. We found that loam and sandy loam store carbon in very different ways. Loam continuously converts particulate carbon into stable forms, while sandy loam relies on short-lived, easily lost carbon. These results indicate that long-term carbon storage depends on soil composition and mineral properties, providing guidance for smarter manure use in sustainable farming.
In greenhouses, long-term manure application does not always lead to lasting soil carbon. We...